Max Born and the Discovery of the Born Rule

Max Born and the Discovery of the Born Rule Max Born (December 11, 1882â€January 5, 1970) was a German physicist who assumed a significant job in the advancement of quantum mechanics. He is known for the â€Å"Born rule,† which gave a measurable translation of quantum mechanics and empowered scientists in the field to anticipate results with explicit probabilities. Brought into the world won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for his key commitments to quantum mechanics. Quick Facts: Max Born Occupation: PhysicistKnown For: Discovery of the Born principle, a factual translation of quantum mechanics.Born: December 11, 1882 in Breslau, PolandDied: January 5, 1970 in Gã ¶ttingen, GermanySpouse: Hedwig EhrenbergChildren: Irene, Margarethe, GustavFun Fact: The vocalist and entertainer Olivia Newton-John, who featured in the 1978 melodic film Grease with John Travolta, is the granddaughter of Max Born. Early Life Max Born was conceived on December 11, 1882 in Breslau (presently Wroclaw) Poland. His folks were Gustav Born, an embryologist at the University of Breslau, and Margarete (Gretchen) Kaufmann, whose family worked in materials. Brought into the world had a more youthful sister named Kthe. At a youthful age, Born went to class at the Kã ¶nig Wilhelms Gymnasium in Breslau, considering Latin, Greek, German, history, dialects, math, and material science. There, Born may have been enlivened by his math instructor, Dr. Maschke, who indicated the understudies how remote telecommunication functioned. Born’s guardians kicked the bucket at an early age: his mom when Born was 4, and his dad without further ado before Born completed school at the Gymnasium. School and Early Career A short time later, Born took seminars on an assortment of science, theory, rationale, and math subjects at Breslau University from 1901â€1902, after his father’s guidance to not spend significant time in a subject too early at school. He likewise went to the Universities of Heidelberg, Zã ¼rich, and Gã ¶ttingen. Companions at Breslau University had informed Born regarding three science teachers at Gã ¶ttingen †Felix Klein, David Hilbert, and Hermann Minkowski. Brought into the world left kindness with Klein because of his sporadic participation at classes, however he along these lines dazzled Klein by tackling an issue on flexible dependability at a workshop without perusing the writing. Klein at that point welcomed Born to enter a college prize rivalry in light of a similar issue. Conceived, notwithstanding, didn't at first partake, affronting Klein once more. Brought into the world adjusted his perspective and later entered, winning the University of Breslau’s Philosophy Faculty Prize for his work on versatility and getting a PhD in science regarding the matter in 1906 under his doctoral guide Carl Runge. Brought into the world hence went to Cambridge University for around a half year, going to addresses by J. J. Thomson and Joseph Larmor. He returned to Gã ¶ttingen to team up with the mathematician Hermann Minkowski, who kicked the bucket following half a month because of an activity for a ruptured appendix. In 1915, Born was offered a teacher position at the University of Berlin. Be that as it may, the open door matched with the start of World War I. Brought into the world joined the German flying corps and chipped away at sound going. In 1919, after World War I, Born turned into an educator at the University of Frankfurt-am-Main. Revelations in Quantum Mechanics In 1921, Born came back to the University of Gã ¶ttingen as a teacher, a post he held for a long time. At Gã ¶ttingen, Born took a shot at the thermodynamics of precious stones, at that point turned out to be fundamentally intrigued by quantum mechanics. He worked together with Wolfgang Pauli, Werner Heisenberg, and various different physicists who might likewise make earth shattering advances in quantum mechanics. These commitments would help establish out the framework of quantum mechanics, especially its numerical treatment. Conceived saw that some of Heisenberg’s analytics was comparable to framework variable based math, a formalism that is utilized broadly in quantum mechanics today. Besides, Born considered the translation of Schrã ¶dinger’s wavefunction, a significant condition for quantum mechanics, which had been found in 1926. Despite the fact that Schrã ¶dinger had given an approach to depict how the wavefunction portraying a framework changed after some time, it was muddled precisely what the wavefunction related to. Brought into the world inferred that the square of the wavefunction could be deciphered as a likelihood circulation that would foresee the outcome given by a quantum mechanical framework when it was estimated. Despite the fact that Born previously applied this disclosure, presently known as the Born standard, to help clarify how waves dissipated, it was later applied to numerous other marvels. Conceived was granted the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on quantum mechanics, with specific accentuation on the Born standard. In 1933, Born had to emigrate because of the ascent of the Nazi party, which made his residency be suspended. He turned into an instructor at Cambridge University, where he worked with Infeld on electrodynamics. From 1935â€1936, he remained in Bangalore, India at the Indian Institute of Science and worked with Sir C.V. Raman, an analyst who won the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics. In 1936, Born turned into a teacher of regular way of thinking at the University of Edinburgh, remaining there for a long time until his retirement in 1953. Grants and Honors Brought into the world won various honors during his lifetime, including: 1939 †Fellowship of the Royal Society1945 †Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize, from the Royal Society of Edinburgh1948 †Max Planck Medal, from the German Physical Society1950 †Hughes Medal, from the Royal Society of London1954 †Nobel Prize in Physics1959 †Grand Cross of Merit with Star of the Order of Merit, from the German Federal Republic Conceived was additionally made a privileged individual from a few institutes, including the Russian, Indian, and Royal Irish foundations. After Born’s demise, the German Physical Society and the British Institute of Physics made the Max Born Prize, which is granted every year. Demise and Legacy In the wake of resigning, Born settled in Bad Pyrmont, a spa resort close Gã ¶ttingen. He kicked the bucket on January 5, 1970 at an emergency clinic in Gã ¶ttingen. He was 87 years of age. Born’s measurable translation of quantum mechanics was historic. On account of Born’s disclosure, analysts can anticipate the consequence of an estimation performed on a quantum mechanical framework. Today, the Born guideline is viewed as one of the key standards of quantum mechanics. Sources Kemmer, N., and Schlapp, R. â€Å"Max Born, 1882-1970.†Landsman, N.P. â€Å"The Born Rule and Its Interpretation.†O’Connor, J.J., and Robertson, E.F. â€Å"Max Born.†

The Basics of Technical Writing

The Basics of Technical Writing Specialized composing is basically a type of composing for one to get specialized data across to other people. Numerous specialized fields think that its essential for their kin to have the rudiments of specialized recording pat, since the best individuals to clarify how a framework wor. Knowing the rudiments to specialized composing is basic on the off chance that one wants to have a future in a profoundly innovative field. A large number of your specialized work force will in general think and communicate in profoundly particular language that is explicit to their specific field. One of the fundamentals to specialized composing is gain proficiency with the capacity to make an interpretation of these specialized terms into a report structure with language that will be straightforward for the general crowd to appreciate. It is exceptionally fitting for each and every individual who tries to go into a particular innovative field to at any rate take a course showing the fundamentals to specialized composition. This basic information will convey this individual higher inside the positions of their picked calling, since strong relational abilities are a need in the corporate universes. One more of the nuts and bolts to specialized composing is to speak with an away from of the reason for the composition. The purpose of this paper should be unmistakably expressed, riight in advance, and . What is the author attempting to pass on to the crowd? Understanding this basic point is the greatest nuts and bolts to specialized composing that one can start with. A portion of the nuts and bolts to specialized composing will advise you to ensure your exploration paper traces the outcomes, shows new data picked up from the outcomes and states the criticalness of the outcomes. In this segment, take a stab at laying out what makes your proejc The best possible structure of this sort of paper is critical to the nuts and bolts of specialized composition. One ought to do a concise theoretical then an exceptionally short presentation that raises the issue and it’s arrangement. A significant essential advance in specialized composing incorporates ensuring the composing is obviously expressed in language that anybody inconsequential to the field can comprehend. In learning rudiments to specialized composition, one will find that it is critical to incorporate any past works that might be applicable to your paper. Recorded as a hard copy the fundamental body of a specialized paper, a couple of delineations are generally prudent. These figures will in general loan themselves to offering the expressed remarks progressively reasonable. Rudiments to specialized composing exhort that figures and proclamations together functions admirably for the perusers. Once more, ensure the phrasing is clear and justifiable to one who may not be comfortable with this specific field. Close your paper with a portrayal or clarification of the final products from the investigation or study. Giving subtleties is one of the nuts and bolts to specialized composition. On the off chance that you anticipate that your paper should be out on the web, at that point ensure you incorporate a decent graphic title relating to your subject. On the off chance that you do this appropriately your paper will show up exceptionally high on explicit web crawler questions. Having two or three perusers edit your paper before introduction is an awesome thought. Have one individual who is innovative as yourself and another who is only your fundamental peruser inquisitive about the field that you are expounding on. On the off chance that the two people can comprehend and understand your paper, at that point it’s fit to be introduced. On the off chance that you can ace only the nuts and bolts to specialized composition, at that point you’ll be well en route to making intriguing and useful papers.

Vying for Attention

Vying for Attention We all have the same 24 hours in a day. And yet, often, we neglect other peoples time. Its hard to realize that we are not the center of the universe. Our own time is precious to us, and yet were constantly vying for other peoples attention, acting as if their attention isnt just as precious as ours. When were attempting to grab someones attention, we should do our part: 1. Be succinct. Brevity is indeed the soul of wit. Or, perhaps, brevity is wit. Thus, we neednt wedge in unnecessary information or details. Its possible to use minimalism to converse with others. Dont leave out important informationâ€"dont be vagueâ€"find a balance. 2. Have a point. Why do you want this persons attention? To entertain her? To inform her? To ask her a question? Be as specific as you can. 3. Add value. This is the most important part. If you are not adding value, then youre just taking someones valuable time. Ask yourself: Does this add value? Subscribe to The Minimalists via email.

Breast Cancer - 898 Words

Yamilet Dominguez Speech: Breast Cancer Intro Attention Getter: Did you know both men and women are able to get breast cancer? Thesis Statement: According to US Breast Cancer Statistics it states that in 2013 there were more than 2.8 million women with history of breast cancer. But that’s not all, 2,240 invasive new cases were diagnosed in 2013 for breast cancer in men. Preview: When finding out about breast cancer, most people first like to know How did you know? Or What did you feel? In other words the 1st signs. Next they would ask what stage you’re at? Then they would help you make a decision whether you’re planning to have a lumpectomy or mastectomy. Lastly they would like to know your treatment plan, chemo, radiation,†¦show more content†¦Topic #4: Treatments like chemo and radiation are a must. Chemotherapy is a treatment with cancer-killing drugs that are given through an IV. The drugs travel through the bloodstream attacking all cancerous cells. Chemo has many side effects, most common hair lost, vomiting, and loss of appetite, low white blood cells, and fatigue. Although some of the side effects are alike when getting radiation, like fatigue, low white blood cell, some are different like chest pain and lung problem but this is totally different from chemo. Radiation is a highly targeted and highly effective way to de stroy cancer cells that remain in the breast. Radiation therapy uses a special kind of high-energy beam to destroy any cancer cells left behind. Conclusion Restate Thesis: 1 in 8 women get breast cancer and 1-1,000 men get breast cancer according to US Breast Cancer Statistics. Summary of topics: The 1st signs may be similar between men and women. Staging would of course be completed different. Between a lumpectomy or mastectomy I believe most men for choose a mastectomy. Unlike them a women would want to keep their breast. On the other hand treatment may also be similar for both. Closing Statements: Before breast cancer struck my mom, I never realized how important and upsetting breast cancer is to the person and their loved ones. When I go with her to her chemo sections I see so many people fighting this disease butShow MoreRelatedBreast Cancer And Cancer Prevention2347 Words   |  10 Pages INTRODUCTION Statistics indicate that breast cancer-related complications are among the top causes of death among women for over 23% of all women’s deaths in the world (Donepudi et al., 2014). The great cases of breast cancer are attributed to lack of information on and hard data on the disease, especially on early diagnosis and treatment options. In America, breast cancer is among the top causes of cancer-related deaths, and the mortality rate is relatively high as compared to the neighboring countriesRead MoreThe For Breast Cancer Action1612 Words   |  7 Pagesintention to give some part of the profit towards breast cancer causes. Ironically, the money made from this marketing will often not significantly benefit somebody with breast cancer. The pink ribbon was originally created by the Susan G Komen foundation yet anybody can use this symbol, because there is no intellectual copyright on it. Pinkwashing is term was first coined by the organization called breast cancer action, whose m ission is to â€Å"Breast Cancer Action’s mission is to achieve health justiceRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer Essay1433 Words   |  6 PagesBreast cancer is a carcinoma that develops due to malignant cells in the breast tissue. Cancerous cells are more likely to produce in the milk-producing ducts and the glands, ductal carcinoma, but in rare cases, breast cancer can develop in the stromal, fatty, tissues or surrounding lymph nodes, especially in the underarm (Breast Cancer). For women, breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the 2nd leading cause of cancer death – behind skin cancer. While treatment or surgeries canRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer1346 Words   |  6 Pagesinternational symbol for breast cancer support and awareness. Breast cancer knows neither racial boundaries nor age restrictions. Females of all ages and ethnicities can develop breast cancer and it is the leading most common cancer among women. Calling at tention to this often fatal disease is important by supporting its victims, families and friends of victims, as well as raising funds for breast cancer research. Though males are not immune from developing a breast cancer, for the purposes of thisRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer946 Words   |  4 PagesSkylar Steinman Period 6 Ms. Jobsz 12 February , 2016 Breast Cancer It is commonly known that Breast Cancer is one of the most insidious diseases that mankind has had to deal with. With the discovery of the BRCA1( BReast Cancer gene one) and BRCA2 (BReast Cancer gene two) genes, breast cancer can be detected with a great amount of certainty on a genetic level in some women and men. 40,000 women and men die of breast cancer each year. Knowing this it is very important to try to detect the mutationRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer1530 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Cancer† is the name for a group of diseases that start in the body at the cellular level. Even though there are many different kinds of cancer, they all begin with abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These abnormal cells lump together to form a mass of tissue or â€Å"malignant tumor†. Malignant means that it can spread to other parts of the body or Metastasize . If the breast is the original location of the cancer gr owth or malignant tumor, the tumorRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer Essay1741 Words   |  7 Pages Internationally, breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer related death amongst women. (CITE) Each year an estimated 1.7 million new cases are diagnosed worldwide, and more than 500,000 women will die of the disease. (CITE) According to (CITE), somewhere in the world one woman is diagnosed with breast cancer every 19 seconds and more than three women die of breast cancer every five minutes worldwide. (CITE) Breast cancer is a heterogeneous condition thatRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer1372 Words   |  6 PagesBreast Cancer Disease Overview Breast cancer is a disease in which certain cells in the breast become abnormal and multiply uncontrollably to form a tumor. Breast cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in women. (Only skin cancer is more common.) About one in eight women in the United States will develop invasive breast cancer in her lifetime. Researchers estimate that more than 230,000 new cases of invasive breast cancer will be diagnosed in U.S. women in 2015. Cancers occur when aRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer1471 Words   |  6 PagesBreast cancer Introduction to Breast cancer Breast cancer is one of the most common forms of cancer only surpassed by lung cancer. It involves a cancerous tumour located inside the breast but spreads if treatment is not administered. (Evert et al 2011) Breast cancer can be treated if diagnosed in its early stages but becomes progressively more difficult upon reaching more advancing malignant stages. Breast cancer can be confused with being a female only disease however both sexes suffer. AccordingRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer1921 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction Cancer is a term that every individual on this planet wants to avoid hearing when they go to their yearly check up at the doctors. However, as person ages, they are prone to develop some sort of sickness and most of the time, they could develop cancer of some sort. For this research paper, I am going to go over breast cancer. Breast cancer is a well-known type of cancer with awareness events going on to support both women and men who has breast cancer. According to American Cancer Society

The Role of Witches in Macbeth - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 1001 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/02/20 Category Literature Essay Level High school Topics: Macbeth Essay Did you like this example? Shakespeare expected to draw in his group of onlookers with something that is certified and that was critical in his time and at that explicit time that was the extraordinary, and Shakespeare created the play Macbeth for King James I in help of him getting the chance to be supporter of the theater, also the ruler was incredibly fascinated into the heavenly, even made books on the issue, Shakespeare even took from the book for the commence of the 3 witches, For instance, James expounded on the capacity of witches to either revile men with ineptitude or accomplish a similar outcome by debilitating them with rehashed sexual experiences. In Act 1, Scene 3, the primary witch portrays her intend to torment the mariner Ill deplete him dry as roughage and Ill do and Ill do and Ill do, recommending that she will abandon him depleted and restless by more than once engaging in sexual relations with him which is evil without any charms simply activity.. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Role of Witches in Macbeth" essay for you Create order The gathering of spectators back in the Elizabethan time were making their psyche up whether Macbeth choices were up close and personal or affected by the three witches since Shakespeare showed what witches of that time would do and act, yet with the exception of Macbeth being self-important and dubious about what he has made sense of how to utilize it for his own one of a kind favorable position, anyway the likelihood of the powerful did not start in this right period it was passed down. Witches and extraordinary had been a subject of numerous for quite a while. Many believed in the force of enchantment, dull charm which was always poisonous, and spirits in the midst of the Elizabethan time in history dated back to feelings from a ton earlier events. Trust in old charm and herbs in like manner animals (familiars), yet the Elizabethans didnt have to rely upon Shakespeare for verification of witches mischiefs complex and magic works awful (Supernatural-Shakespeare). In the play Macbeth asks the witches, Though you loosen the breezes and let them fight against the spots of love anyway bladed corn be ceased and trees blown down reply to me to what I ask which implies Macbeth acknowledges what they can do and this is what everyone thought about witches how they are loathsome, additionally for current groups of onlookers it could be hard to comprehend why Macbeth, who was a successful fighter in that century in Scotland, gave his thoughtfulness regarding something so malevolent, yet Shakespeares gatherings of people would have seen totally, black magic was a piece of the general populations day by day life. Individuals blamed unnatural events as made by witches, yet some believed they had no genuine method to ensure themselves Most Elizabethans supported a methodology of non-experience with those they thought were witches(Papp and Kirkland), however the conviction was profound to the point that the overall public started to used retaliatory charm that would switch the revile. For most Elizabethans, dark enchantment was malicious, and uncovering and communicating charms was the most notable ways witches worked. In the midst of the trust they were excessively far to simply trust that there were no heavenly occasions going on. Shakespeare used dark enchantment to movement to his gathering of spectators that Scotland was in a powerless and disturbed state. What made witches unsafe was their staggering want and energy to pitch their spirits in order to achieve control (for their circumstance, vile rather than political). In like way, Macbeth falls prey to comparable inclinations. Macbeth is molded by heavenly powers with the utilization of the abnormal witches, the nebulous visions like the separated head, wicked kid and the imperial tyke wearing the crown were seen by the charms and elixir given to Macbeth by the witches, and the phantom of Banquo. The phantom of Banquo frequents Macbeth by helping him to remember the horrendous activities he has submitted so as to be in the best spot when the apparition of banquo shows up in the play it demonstrates a ton about the character Macbeth we perceive how he responds when he look at the apparition, likewise the drifting blade which was the most significant time in the play, the knife is symbolizing Macbeth plummet into franticness, however there he cant tell the knife isnt genuine, yet later in the play Macbeths vision and reality get stirred up and he supposes the phantom of Banquo is genuine , and gradually every one of the dreams and mind flights began to wear on his cerebrum and his conscious.is the blade which I see before me.. which was a visualization. At the point when the blade appears to Macbeth he turns into the casualty of the hallucinations he is having, the knife is the reason Macbeth submitted. The knife is utilized to urge Macbeth to perpetrate the wrongdoing and this is what demonstrates to us that the blade is insidious Macbeth says is this a blade I find before me, with its handle indicating my hand? Come let me hold you..The powers lead Macbeth to act the manner in which he did and add puzzle to the play and leaves the crowd in tension. The witches clearly had an effect on Macbeth in the play and you can see as Macbeth experiences his change, from better warrior than a power hungry despot and this helps upgrade the change he experiences on account of the witches. All witches said reasonable is foul, and foul is reasonable; float through the mist and dirty air. which means doubt everything and in the haze its difficult to tell whats truly there. The supernatural help as a job of an visible sign of hatred, and clear soundness and judgment to wander off to a killers mind with the appearance of banquos ghost. The witches played an very big part that encourages Macbeths response to the level where his moralities are flawed, and his section of blood shed, also being blamed and commiting disgusting acts.

Being a Change Agent Managing Social Change Free Essays

We believe that the job of being a change agent should start with two kinds of question. First, is a structural question: How do you identify persons and subgroups that are the â€Å"strategic levers† of change in any particular public? This means identifying the opinion leaders and community influential who can influence others in the system to adopt change. Second, is a social-psychological or an interactional question: How do you change the behaviors or the minds of the people in question? The different strategies discussed earlier represent alternative ways of going about change agents can do to reduce resistance to change. We will write a custom essay sample on Being a Change Agent: Managing Social Change or any similar topic only for you Order Now What are some of these changes? On can reduce resistance to the adoption of a change by attempting to make the particular innovation (1) simple and easy to communicate, (2) divisible, and (3) maximally compatible with the status quo values and needs (Harper Leicht). Is it possible that a change agent is for the good, not purely destructive change? In my mind, change is agent is to make people better. Which is something we should all strive for? In addition, cans someone starting being a change agent, can a person successful in being a change agent? In this paper you learn about what is a change agent and who can be a Change Agent, How to create change, The ethics of Inducing change, What makes a good change agent, Define change leaders on five levels of leadership skills, and Five most important competencies of change agents. In addition, I will imagine myself as a change agent trying to change my neighborhood or community for the better. What is a Change Agent? A change agent is a catalyst and when added to the mix, changes everything. It can be a process, an element, a thought, or a person. A social change agent is an individual working to bring about a more life-affirming society. This is a person whose presence or thought processes cause a change from the traditional way of handling or thinking about a problem. They know how to get people involved in solving their own problems. A change agent lives in the future, not the present. Regardless of what is going on today, a change agent has a vision of what could or should be and uses that as the governing sense of action. To a certain extent, a change agent is dissatisfied with what they see around them, in favor of a much better vision of the future. A change agent has a strong ability to self-motivate. A change agent is fueled by passion, and inspires passion in others. Moreover, at the end of the day, change is about people (Stevenson 2012). Who can be a Change Agent? A Persons with Innovative Ideas, Calculated Risk Takers, Person coming with different Industry or sector even from different department, That’s why reshuffling is done within an organization, External consultants, Trackers who are tracking market ,competitors ,technology etc secretly, Persons ingrained with sharp business knowledge and skills, Team leader who are having a quality to integrate, People possessing qualities like need achievement, positive attitude, ethical behavior, One who think big and realistic, and Who knows more about your company policy and people. There is no cookbook for creating change. Why? As anyone who has attempted to cook a complex meal knows, exact specifications are always missing and recipes contain many vague instructions: â€Å"Add salt to taste†. How much is that? â€Å"Cook until vegetables are crisp, but do not over cook. † What does that mean? Like cooking, social change requires experience, making do with imperfect ingredients, and often mudding through. There are some issues that a change agents need to consider. Plans for social change involve a number of issues: The first task is to good plan is to define the goals of the desired change. Second task, is that a good plan needs to specify as precisely as possible the target or reference public: Who is to change? Third task is to have a good plan will identify situation or times when the target population is most receptive to change. Fourth task is to have a good plan will develop an inventory resource available. Fifth task is that a good plan should consider appropriate strategies (for example, facilitation, reeducation, persuasion, or power/coercion), how they might be combined, and how their contradictions might be addressed. Finally, a good plan should include mechanisms for the ongoing monitoring of change so that it can be modified, fine tuned, or abandoned (Harper Leicht). There are various strategies along a continuum in term of the extent to which we believe that they involve ethical problems, as follows: facilitation, reeducation, persuasion, or power/coercion. In the terms of these criteria, facilitation and reeducation (to the extent that the latter can be honestly practiced) do respect the autonomy, rationality, and dignity of person who are the targets of change. Persuasion, in comparison, respects the voluntary choice to adopt change but may overwhelm the person with distorted (or false) information, withheld information, and non-rational appeals to emotion. Power and coercive strategies carry the greatest number of ethical problems because they deny voluntary adoption and rejection and maximally violate people’s autonomy and dignity. There is a bottom line here. Granted that creating social change is often costly and demanding to. Granted that success, even partial success, is always uncertain as well. Granted that long-term systemic consequences may be well counter productive to one’s original intent. Even so, should one refuse to make efforts to change things if the issues are important? The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s was long, costly, and difficult effort that only partly succeeded. Being aware of its high costs and limited successes, should its organizers have given up? We do not think so. The lives of millions of minority Americans that are better today for those efforts even thought the goal of complete racial justice remains elusive (Harper Leicht). Due to the dynamics in the external environment, many organizations find themselves in nearly continuous change. The scope reaches from smaller change projects in particular sub business units up to corporation-wide transformation processes. Unfortunately, not every change process leads to the expected results. There are multiple reasons for potential failure: Typical barriers to change are unexpected changes in the external conditions, a lack of commitment in implementation, resistance of people involved, or a lack of resources. The implications of failed change projects go beyond missed objectives. More important is the negative symbolism and the de-motivation of people involved. People within the change team may become dissatisfied with their own performance or the lack of support they received. In the result, some of them will probably never again be willing to commit themselves to change initiatives. Similarly, people affected by the (failed) change effort will develop growing skepticism. They might perceive future change projects as â€Å"another fancy dea from management†, which brings a lot of work and few benefits. In the light of the many problems and risks associated with change projects, the change agent has a very important function. The change agent’s or change leader’s capabilities have a major impact on success or failure of the project, and on the extent of potential unwanted side effects. The following article describes required capabilities of good change agents. Readers should keep in mind, however, that there is no ‘ideal’ change agent. Particular requirements normally relate to the actual situation in the organization (e. . corporate culture, strategic relevance of the project, acceptance of the project among management and staff, timeframe, resources etc). Depending on these factors, either change agents may need good project management capabilities in order to guarantee timely progress, or they should be good leaders with the ability to motivate people (Recklies 2001). Jim Canterucci defines change leaders on five levels of leadership ski lls. Although he mainly focuses on leadership capabilities and qualifications, his system can easily be transferred to change projects with varying importance. The leader of an organization-wide restructuring project will need different capabilities than the one who is responsible for clearly defined project on departmental level. Levels of Change Leadership Skills, derived from Canterucci: is Level I is to Accepts the need for change, communicates and defends the need for change throughout the organization, creates an open and receptive environment. Small change initiatives with clear direction. Level II Defines and initiates change, identifies advantage points for change in processes and work habits. A change projects at local level. Level III is to leads change, translate the vision of the organization into the context of a specific change initiative and bring this message to the entire organization, redirects approaches in the face of new opportunities. A transformation of a central vision into change initiatives and organization-wide communication. Level IV is to manage complex change, understands the cultural dynamics of the current state of an organization, and creates a strategic practical course, balancing the current reality with the need for rapid adoption of the desired future reality. A generates change with a high degree of transformation. Level V is that champions makes change, challenges the status quo by comparing it to an ideal or a vision of change, causes crisis in order to support dramatic actions and change efforts, transforms the organization. An ability to revolutionize organizations (Canterucci 2008). Buchanan and Bobby have carried out a study on the perceived effectiveness of change agents. On that basis, they compiled the five most important competencies of change agents. These, too, are evidence for the importance of the soft factors. The five most important competencies of change agents are Objectives, Roles, Communication, Negotiation, Managing up. Each of these five most important competencies of change agents has descriptive of how to implement change. The first most important competencies of change agents are objectives. The descriptive of how to implement change of objectives are: Sensitivity to changes in key personnel, top management perceptions and market conditions, and to the way in which these impact the goals of the project. , Setting of clearly defined realistic goals, and Flexibility in responding to changes without the control of the project manager, perhaps requiring major shifts in project goals and management style. The second most important competencies of change agents are roles. The descriptive of how to implement change of roles are: Team-building abilities, to bring together key stakeholders and establish effective working groups, and to define and delegate respective responsibilities clearly, Networking skills in establishing and maintaining appropriate contacts within and outside the organization, and Tolerance of ambiguity, to be able to function comfortably, patiently and effectively in an uncertain environment. The third most important competencies of change agents are communication. The descriptive of how to implement change of communication are: Communication skills to transmit effectively to colleagues and subordinates the need for changes in the project goals and in individual tasks and responsibilities, Interpersonal skills, across the range, including selection, listening, collecting appropriate information, identifying the concerns of others, and managing meetings, Personal enthusiasm in expressing plans and ideas, and Stimulating motivation and commitment in others involved. The fourth important competencies of change agents are negotiation. The descriptive of how to implement change of negotiation are selling plans and ideas to others by creating a desirable and challenging vision of the future, and Negotiating with key players for resources, for changes in procedures, and to resolve conflict. The fifth important competencies of change agents are managing up. The descriptive of how to implement change of negotiation are political awareness in identifying potential coalitions, and in balancing conflicting goals and perceptions, Influencing skills, to gain commitment to project plans and ideas form potential skeptics and resisters, and to have Helicopter perspectives, to stand back from the immediate project and take a broader view of priorities. According to Rosabeth Moss Kanter mentions many emotional components among the most important characteristics of change agents. In addition to the factors described above, she stresses the need to question the knowledge of the organization. According to Moss Kanter, existing patterns of thinking and existing assumptions about the organization, its markets, customers, and relationships have to be challenged. Thus, change agents should realize that there is more than one right solution. The change agent has to be able to evaluate facts from different points of view, e. g. from the customer’s or competitor’s perspective. Furthermore, Moss Kanter stresses the importance of coalition building, which she describes as an often-ignored step in change processes. Change agents should identify and involve opinion leaders, decision makers on resources, functional experts and other important persons as early as possible in the project-planning phase. The importance of the factor motivation is well described with the phrases transferring ownership to a working team and making everyone a hero. In my opinion, Moss Kanter gives the most important preconditions for successful change management – the involvement of the people – with these two phrases. Members of the change team and other employees affected by the change initiative must not feel like as if they are just the tools for change or the subject of change. In my experience, it is not enough to have a convincing vision. Real commitment can only be gained by giving people the chance to become actively involved, to contribute their own experiences. Every employee needs to know that his contribution to the project is important and is valued. Thus, people will develop a sense of ownership for the project, which, in turn may serve as a major source of motivation when it comes to the inevitable problems and barriers. Kanter 1999) provides a great summary of the characteristics of good change agents when she writes that the most important things a leader can bring to a changing organization are passion, conviction, and confidence in others. Imagine myself as a change agent trying to change my neighborhood or community for the better. What are some issues that I would consider to change in my neighborhood or community? Assume that I have some, but not having unlimited resources and money to use. How would I go about it? What things would you consider in order to change that particular issue? As I sit here and imagine myself as a change agent, a few things come to my mind that I want to change in my neighborhood or community. I would consider changing in my neighborhood or community is they way we go about our health on a daily basis. Having limit to the resources and money it can consume. If that limit is a problem, then the project may really end up being a waste of time. With limited resource, I would go about it by make a plan to pull out of the project or at least good backup plans for handling failures. At worst, make sure to minimize any risks. Get more resources. Sometimes this is hard work, but it may pay off. Get help. Sometimes someone with more experience may know of resources or can spot misuse of resources in a project. Just be willing to accept criticism. Cut out any parts of the project those are unnecessary. However, one part of a project it be well liked, it may not be truly important. Plan, study, research, prepare. There is a saying that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Good preparation can eliminate the need for many resources (wikihow). With limited money, I would need to raise some extra capital; there are a number of different ways that I can raise money. The good thing about this strategy is that they cost little, if anything, to use. After all, the last thing you want is to spend a lot of money to raise the cash you need. How I would raise, money is to have an online auction. By cleaning out my closets and I can make some extra money at the same time by posting unwanted belongings on online auction sites. Pay a small listing fee when I post each item, then another commission based on the final selling price. To start me need a free online auction account as well as having a good digital camera for taking photographs. Then I can make even more money by offering to sell unwanted items on commission for family members, friends, and co-workers (ehow. com). I can bring in to friends that I would help my neighborhood and community on dieting and fitness tips. They will explain the ten essential elements of good health. If you take all of the actions listed below, you will be much healthier. Eat a Healthy Breakfast, Drink at Least 8 Glasses of Water, Take a Good Quality Multiple Vitamin/Mineral, Connect with Other People, express Your Emotions Appropriately, Eat Fruits and Vegetables, Spend at Least 30 Minutes Outdoors Active, Take Some Quiet Time for Yourself Keep Regular Sleep Hours, and Establish a Relationship with a Doctor You Can Trust (Bauer 2009). In conclusion, a change agent has a strong ability to self-motivate. There will be many days where everyone around does not understand and will not offer props. The change agent needs to find it within themselves to get up every day and come to work and risk being misunderstood and miss-appreciated, knowing that the real validation may be far in the future and may be claimed by someone else. A change agent must understand people. At the end of the day, change is about people. If you change everything but the people, I doubt you will be effective as a change agent. Change will really â€Å"stick† when people embrace it. Therefore, change is part sales, part counseling, and part encouragement. It is all about people, at the end of the day. Reference Bauer, Carl H: (2009); Ten Simple Things You Can Do to Get Healthy and Stay Healthy. http://www.somaacupuncture.com/healthy.html Buchanan D. Bobby D. (1992);  The Expertise of the Change Agent: Public Performance and Backstage Activity  . Prentice Hall. Canterucci, Jim: (2008); are You a Change Leader?http://www.corpchange.com/Resources/Articles/Areyouachangeleaderarticle.asp Recklies, Dagmar: (2001); What Makes a Good Change Agent? http://www.themanager.org/Strategy/change_agent.htm#_ftnref2 Haper, Charles L. and Leicht, Kevin T. (2010); † Exploring Social Change: America and the World, 6nd ed.† Upper Saddle River, NJ; Prentice Hall. Moss, Rosabeth K. (1999):  The Enduring Skills of Change Leaders. In Leader to Leader; Nr. 13. Recklies, Dagmar: (2001); What Makes a Good Change Agent? http://www.themanager.org/Strategy/change_agent.htm#_ftnref2 　Stevenson, Dennis: (2012); What is a Change Agent? Http://www.thechangeagents.net/what-is-a-change-agent.html http ://www.ehow.com/info_8026713_ways-money-quickly-limited-funds.htmlhttp:// http://www.wikihow.com/Work-With-Limited-Resources-on-a-Project How to cite Being a Change Agent: Managing Social Change, Papers

I Am Not Esther Essay Example For Students

I Am Not Esther Essay Literature Essay I am not Esther. I am not Esther by Fleur Beale is a novel about a young New Zealand girl, Kirby Greenland, whose mother leaves her and sends her to live with her distant, religion-driven family, of whom she barely knows. Understanding the idea of identity is important to fully connect with the novel. In this essay I will be discussing the idea of Kirby’s identity as it changes and develops throughout the novel. Before Kirby was left by her mother and sent to live with her extremely religious family, she was very fun-loving, normal, responsible and sure of her identity. Kirby was the â€Å"one who had to organise the running of† their â€Å"flat, who had to write out the cheques for the bills, make sure she,† (her Mother), â€Å"didn’t spend all the money before the next payday, get the washing done, drag her,† (her Mother), â€Å"off to buy groceries. † Kirby was extremely responsible; she was like the adult of the house. Kirby’s neighbour Louisa taught her â€Å"how to budget and how to shop for groceries† and all that kind of stuff her Mother â€Å"wasn’t interested in. Kirby and her best friend, Gemma, would â€Å"hit town† and go shopping for the day, or just stay home and watch movies â€Å"for the ninth time. † Kirby and her mother, Ellen, would have barbecues that end â€Å"with twenty of the neighbours† in the â€Å"back garden. † Kirby was very close with her mother, Ellen. They had a lot of fun together, such as the time they dyed their hair â€Å"green and red and silver† for Christmas. Kirby and Ellen, along with Gemma, went looking â€Å"all over Auckland looking for just the right Christmas decorations† together. Kirby was definitely normal in the sense of being fun and sure of her identity and herself generally, but she was responsible to the point where it was as though she was the adult of the house. When Kirby was first sent to live with the Pilgrim family, she found it very hard to adjust to their religious way of life. Kirby was made to change her clothes from her â€Å"t-shirt and shorts† to a â€Å"white blouse and a long blue skirt,† which she thought were â€Å"dreary,† but her Aunt Naomi called them â€Å"modest. † Kirby was forced to change her way of speaking. Slang words like can’t or shouldn’t were not allowed, instead can not and should not had to be said. The next thing Kirby was required to change was her name. Kirby Greenland was no longer; instead she was given the â€Å"Biblical name,† Esther. Uncle Caleb and Aunt Naomi made Kirby wear her hair in a plait/braid, picked her subjects at school and didn’t have any mirrors in their house. Although there was one positive thing that came out of living with the Pilgrims, and that was that Kirby got to experience a family where she could be a child, instead of acting like the adult the whole time. All of this was done to change Kirby from her normal, fun-loving self, into a religious, godly mannered girl, Esther. Kirby was very affected by her identity struggle in terms of whether she is Kirby or Esther, whether she will still be the adult of the house when she gets reunited with her mother and if she will ever be able to go back to how things were in the beginning. When Kirby got out of the â€Å"Religious sect†, she was not sure if that was the right thing to do or not. Kirby felt that now that she did not have to be Esther, she wanted to be. .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 , .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 .postImageUrl , .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 , .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1:hover , .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1:visited , .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1:active { border:0!important; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1:active , .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1 .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc155feccd8d858fc67f0b5e74578d1f1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: What Is Abortion? Argumentative EssayShe had the clothing she was forced to wear, â€Å"in her hands† while deciding what to do with them. Kirby â€Å"decided to keep them† so if ever she was to have children, she could â€Å"show them the clothes† from the terrible time she was living within a â€Å"Religious sect† as Esther Pilgrim. When Kirby finally found out her mother was â€Å"in a psychiatric ward† and was â€Å"depressed,† Kirby could not understand how depression could drive her mother to abandon her. About three months after finding her mother, Ellen moved into a flat. Kirby would go stay for the weekend, but found it strange how her mother â€Å"cooked and did the washing and looked after† both of them, instead of how it was in the beginning where Kirby ran the house. In this essay, I have discussed how Kirby’s identity has developed and changed from when she was living happily with her mother, to when she was sent to live with the Pilgrim family and they tried to change her into Esther Pilgrim, a godly mannered girl. Then finding out where her mother was, which was â€Å"in a psychiatric ward† because she was â€Å"depressed. † Kirby experienced a very confusing identity crisis.

4 Steps to a Winning Admission Essay

A college admissions essay is perhaps one of the most important documents a person will ever write. Believe it. Admissions committees (typically made up of the very professors with whom you want to work) will absolutely read your submission—and then happily use your words for or against you in the selection process. Any university professor will tell you that a search committee relies on the admissions essay for the insights it provides in helping to measure the â€Å"fit† of an applicant to a particular program. A smart search committee member evaluates the attributes of both candidate and school to estimate whether or not an applicant will succeed at the institution. So with that in mind, how do you develop just the right tone and message for the essay? Consider what follows as a guide toward putting your best essay forward. Your academic success might depend on it. Do Your Homework Feed into the ego of the admissions committee members by noting their accomplishments, which obviously shape the reasons you want/need to study at that particular place. Make it clear that â€Å"thanks to Dr. Y’s recent published study on X,† there is no better place on the planet for you to come do your work and subsequently make your own brilliant contributions to the field—all filtered through their genius, of course. Are you getting me here? Don’t pander, and don’t wallow. But by all means, speak directly to and about the target school, acknowledging that behind every desirable academic program are instructors, researchers, and administrators making it shine. Get Personal Think of the admissions essay as a portrait of you (minus the fake smile and perfect hair) that reveals something about your personal truth. Heavy, I know, but a candidate must relate particulars about just why they want to attend a designated school—and you can do so by setting up some amount of a personal history. Are you the first of your family to go to college or pursue a graduate degree? Maybe your childhood was fraught with varying levels of pain related to financial realities, health problems, or other â€Å"issues† you’ve managed to overcome? Say so. Build your case—but don’t go crazy on this front. No need to pull the sympathy card, but if there lurks in your past a legitimate â€Å"shadow† which somehow fueled your desire to get into this school, then tell that story. Build Up Your Story Now, don’t simply accumulate a list of bullet points; instead, write prose that sequences from one idea to the next via logical transitions and vivid, descriptive wording. Try to offer the admissions committee readers a narrative flow, so that they come away with a sense of where you’ve been, where you are now, and where you plan to go. In other words, structure the essay on a sort of past-present-future platform, and always anchor your â€Å"plot† in how this school—how this program—is the only logical jumping-off point for your next phase. Pay Attention to Details Have two or three people (who have a grasp of the language) read your essay before you submit! It’s imperative to get feedback on content, readability, and even â€Å"mechanics† (errors in punctuation are more distracting than you might think). It’s critical that you pad the writing-editing-revising-submitting sequence with the time necessary to do all of the above. As you craft the essay, always remember that a school cares about who it accepts; after all, a student’s academic trajectory should result in his or her entry into the professional arena, where that now former student will make a distinguished mark in the field. That mark will soon enough reflect positively back onto the school, the program, and yes—on the professors themselves, which bring us full circle: know your audience. There it is. The road to a truly outstanding admission essay is not that long. The truth is, it does require diligence, creativity and perseverance. However, destination is worth it.

Can DNA compose essays

Can DNA compose essays DNA which is also known as the genetic fingerprint is present in many biological substances such as blood, semen, skin cells, bone, and saliva. Because people leave DNA on many items such as cigarette butts, facial tissues, and eyeglasses investigators gather the DNA and use it for evidence in criminal investigations. DNA has been able to identify perpetrators years after they have committed the crime. One such example of this was when detectives in Baltimore County, Maryland, reopened a case and pursued leads in a sexual-assault homicide case that had remained unsolved for 19 years. In an effort to identify DNA evidence from the victim, officers requested the microscopic slides, made during the autopsy, from the chief medical examiner's office. When the DNA came to the laboratory the staff extracted sufficient DNA from the slides to produce a satisfactory DNA profile to assist in solving the case. Although DNA evidence obtained many years ago can contain forensically valuable DNA material there are some enviromental factors that exisit at a crime scene that can affect DNA and render it useless. Examples of these enviromental factors include heat, sunlight, moisture, bacteria, and mold. Also if DNA is not properly obtained and secured the DNA evedience has a good chace that it would degrade. Also when identifying, obtaining, and handling DNA evidence the officers must make sure that they do nothing to contaminate the material. Contamination can occur when the evidence comes in contact with anothers bodly fluids by actions such as sneezing, coughing, or touching. So detectives who obtain DNA must be very careful otherwise if they mistreat it DNA could very easly be rendered useless. ...

PROJECT MANAGEMENT - CASE STUDY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

PROJECT MANAGEMENT - CASE STUDY - Essay Example his assignment, our objective is to develop a two year plan for correcting the defaults in the existing operations of the company and to attain improvement in its operational performance. Analysis of risk affecting the success of project is also aimed to produce through this project. It is focused on identifying the options for making improvement in the business operations of the company. The main objectives of this assignment can be summarized as below: The project plan is objected to provide performance improvement tool for the small manufacturing company in order to discard its operational and organizational problems. Through this research a two year plan has to be developed to implement a programme of integrated performance improvement activities in the small manufacturing company that employs about 30 people. The confliction between the two office staff members and two shop floor staff members for the left position of co-director and manager of the company has to be cleared through the organizational restructure. Thus a detailed organizational restructure plan is also required to be provided to the Company chairman. Operational performance analysis is intended to identify the problems and defaults existing in the business operations of the manufacturing company. Most of the organizational level problems in the manufacturing company are the result of lack of managerial hierarchy and established authority responsibility relationship in the organization. Thus analysis of operational performance and root causes of the problems will be helpful to formulate proper project plan that meets the requirements of the company relating to the operational efficiency of the entire organizational structure. Improvement in organizational performance can be done in different ways. Tools such as organizational restructuring and process reengineering are suitable for the manufacturing company to correct its default in operations. Risk relating to the implementation of the newly

Freudian Theory and Poppers Falsifiability Essay - 1

Freudian Theory and Poppers Falsifiability - Essay Example In doing so, I shall argue that although Freudian psychology cannot be falsified, and is thus deemed as pseudo-scientific, it nevertheless works in both scientific theory and practice. How do we distinguish between science and pseudo-science? Popper’s solution to the demarcation problem is really quite simple. He says that what distinguishes scientific claims from non-scientific ones is its falsifiability. Thus, a hypothesis is scientific if and only if there is some way in which it can be falsified by means of some experiment. If we cannot construct an experiment, which can potentially falsify a hypothesis, then the hypothesis, even if it is meaningful, is really not quite scientific. In line with these two theories that are foundational to Popper’s philosophy, it is clear that Popper views science as a rational enterprise, where theory-change is characterized by scientific progress. According to Popper, science changes through a two-step cycle. Stage one is conjecture, and the second stage is attempted refutation. Under the stage of conjecture, a theory is proposed as an attempt to solve the problem at hand. The theory is then put to test by attempted refutations. Attempted refutation occurs when â€Å"the hypothesis is subjected to critical testing, in an attempts to show that it is false† (Godfrey-Smith, 2003, p. 61). Moreover, Popper notes that after the hypothesis is refuted, the process repeats again starting from a new conjecture, and so on and so forth. If the theory is corroborated, then it is temporarily accepted as un-refuted, but not justified. What is important to take note of here is that as the process goes on, the scientist tends to propose new conjectures that are related to previous conjectures. Thus, a scientific theory is merely modified and improved through this process of conjecture and refutation, i.e. falsification of the previous conjectures.

Scandinavian History And Society Politics Essay

Scandinavian History And Society Politics Essay Scandinavian countries have enjoyed an international reputation for combining generous welfare state entitlements with rapid economic growth, low unemployment and very high levels of labour force participation, particularly among women.  [1]  The Path for the emergence of Scandinavian countries to becoming a welfare state was not easy and it is different from each other country Scandinavian countries. Throughout the twentieth century, the scope of social planning in Scandinavia continuously ex-panded, with the aim of achieving balanced economic and social development-that is to say, economic growth as well as social justice. Thus, fighting poverty went hand in hand with state institution building for social and economic growth as well as political democracy, and was pioneered by broad-based popular social movements  [2]  . Sweden: Sweden has become known as the prototype for the Social Democratic welfare state. Since around 1960, the modern Swedish social security system was built on a combination of universalism, i.e. that social rights encompassed all inhabitants and income security, guaranteeing the standard of living for those who for some reason could not continue to work  [3]  . The late 19th century for Sweden brought lots of interior problem which were connected with the social issues such as poverty, emigration, economic and social lack of assurance, industrialization, urbanization and capitalistic system for wage labour. As other Nordic countries Sweden was also dominated by the big proportion of rural population more than 50 % who were the tax payer and had a key role in the political system mostly live in the country side had farms and basically dependent upon agricultural, fishery and forestry with some insurances but the question raised for the urban working class who were the sufferi ng one. This struggle was strictly genderized. Social welfare and more economic efficiency were the main motto during 1946-1950 with a proper public pension and general health insurance with compulsory schooling for the children. 1950-60 were the part of economic crises in Swedish history. 1960-70 child care, old age people health care was specially focused by the government and also blocket in 1968 with a 4 week vacation and expansion secondary school and universities. 1970-80 oil crises which expanded the problems in Sweden. 1980s- 2000 where the era of economic development or we can say more focused on economic development. Changing the society, medical development and neo-liberal Ideas of Carl Bildt has supported the emergence of Swedish welfare state. Norway: The emergence and the development of a welfare state in Norway as associated with the labour party government after the Second World War. The Norwegian welfare state is a product of the policy of the Norwegian Social Democratic Party. Such an assertion has certain relevance, but it must be considered in the light of the time-span within which one places the establishment and moulding of the welfare state  [4]  . Period from 1935-1978 were considered as the golden age of Norway and the 1880-1935 were the foundation of welfare state in Norway. The local councils play an integral part in Norwegian welfare system because local autonomy was very much appreciated and democratized of politics taken at early stage. At early stage farmer were the dominating political factor support the local autonomy and establish the laws how the community is going to develop. A concept was developed in farmers and general public to helping people to help themselves which drive individual to work by own pay their debt by own self and be self-reliant. The social care act bill (1845-1964) self help and self reliance was the core of the bill which was for the mutual support and responsibility among the families. The Norwegian welfare model is type of comprehensive because it is based on universal principle it is benefiting each and every strata of the Norwegian society. Another important feature of the Norwegian welfare state is that cash support from the National security system (folktrygden) is based on ones income, that is, in relation to ones salary in the labour market. Furthermore, the public sector is responsible for the social welfare goods or services. These services are being delivered by the communes and state or private organisations that receive public aids under strict public control. There is always a political struggle to stop the development in the commercialisation of these public goods that the public delivers.  [5]   Sweden and Norway had two motives first to create a contemporary identity which are echoed from the past and the rationalist instrumental to bound the democratic movement and namely given in shape of training of mature human being to increase the participation in the countrys public affair. In both the countries during the time of introduction of welfare state term the rural farmer were the dominating factor and tax payers. With a view to the ill-defined conditions with the party co-operation with the farmers and in light of the fact it was through the support of the farmers parties that the social democratic party in both Sweden and Norway  [6]  social democratic parties on the region were Sweden was considered as the exception were as Norway was very much close to the development in Europe even though most of the democrats on the region stayed outside. It was somehow hard to explain the Norwegian radicalism. Conversely it is possible to view the situation in Sweden as opposite of bulls perception namely that the working class was more oriented or action oriented in Sweden then in Norway  [7]  . Sweden and Norway turned themselves from a small, revolutionary, class struggle parties to the big, national, unifying parties and worked for modernization program in their respective countries. The social democrats in Sweden and Norway turned to reformism and won the strong positions. In 1919 Norden organization in which Norway, Denmark and Sweden work together for the mutual enlightenment and cultural co-operation among Scandinavian countries. They both share the Scandinavian identity and they have an extensive network of labor movement and academic world there is a strong inclination to copy each other. Old age care and public pensions, which tend to benefit females more than males since the longevity for females is significantly longer than for males  [8]  . 1914 Sweden introduced public pension scheme. The pension include old age pension and disabilility pension which were compulsory the pension were given after the age of 67 or earlier if person is unable to do work. The Norwegian public pension is formed on the same theme as the Swedish insurance scheme. The reform in Norway is inspired by the Swedish pension reform, in part by changing over to a lifetime-based pension earning and by introducing a flexible pension which is neutral in design.  [9]  The reform look identical at a first glance but from closer context the difference shows. Norwegian pension system is traditional social insurance while Swedish traditional one pay as you system in which financial risk are transferred from state to individual. difference in outcome of the two countries reform processes is proba bly best explained by different perceptions on future crisis in the old age pension system, and of course, the different national economic position of the two countries. By transforming the petrol fortune into a pension fund, Norway has secured a financial buffer for future pension payments that is already six times as high per capita than the Swedish financial buffer.  [10]   Conclusion: Specific historical social and economic structural configurations in Scandinavia may have been conducive to the development of a participatory political culture, consensus building (compare with the political compromises of the 1930s), a strong role of local and central government, and the overall support for the principle of universalism (education, health and social security). But the uniqueness of the Scandinavian historical experience does not rule out an assessment of the implications of developing governmental capacity and institutions for promoting welfare, and for the possible positive implications of the principle of universal policies for the general level of welfare.  [11]  Trust is a fundamental prerequisite for the welfare state. If we didnt trust one another, the whole model that the Scandinavian societies are built around would collapse even before it was implemented.  [12]  

Case: Birch Paper Company Essay

As shown in the calculations above, Northern should accept the bid from Thompson division as it has the lowest cost if all transfer prices within the company were calculated at costs. Incurring the lowest costs would also enable Birch Paper Company to earn the highest profits possible. 2. As alternatives for sourcing exists, Mr. Kenton should be permitted to choose the alternative that is in Northern division’s own interests. The  transfer price policy gives him the right to deal with either insiders or outsiders at his discretion. If he is unable to get a satisfactory price from the inside source which is Thompson division, he is free to buy from outside. Mr. Kenton, manager of the Northern division should not accept the bid from Thompson division. The three bids from Thompson division, West Paper Company and Eire Paper Company are $480, $430 and $432 respectively. Accepting the bid from Thompson division would be accepting the highest bid amongst all three offers (highest costs). This would result in the lowest profits. As the Northern division is evaluated as an investment center, it is judged independently on the basis of its profit and return on investment. Mr. Kenton should not accept the bid from Thompson division. 3. The method of using transfer price to decide whether to in source is optimum if the selling profit center can sell all of its products to either insiders or outsiders and if buying center can obtain all of its requirements from either outside or insiders. The market price then represents the opportunity costs to the seller of selling the product inside. In this case, Thompson division had been running below capacity and Southern division also had excess inventory. The transfer price of $480 offered by Thompson division does not represent the opportunity costs of selling inside as there is no demand market for the product outside. Also, the transfer price of $480 is higher than the market price which is around $430. Deciding based on transfer price will not induce goal congruence as the situation is not ideal. Without any intervention from the vice president of Birch Paper Company, the Northern division would most probably accept the lowest bid from West Paper Company. This might result in the highest profits for Northern division but it is not in the best interests of Birch Paper Company. Accepting the bid from Thompson division would boost demand for the two other divisions. The losses cut would most probably be more than the costs saved by Northern division which is $50 ($480-$430). The vice president should give specific orders to Northern division to accept the bid from Thompson division. However, as the transaction in this case represents less than 5% of the volume of any of the divisions involved, it might not be possible for the vice president to intervene other transactions when similar problems arise. 4. Ideally, when there is an availability of market price, the division should use it. However, Thompson used a cost-based transfer price instead. Cost-based transfer price should only be used when the market price is not available. The problem with Birch’s transfer pricing system is that they allow each division to set their own price freely which is inline with the company’s policy to decentralize responsibility and authority. When each division can set their own price, conflicts and disagreements can occur on a frequent basis and each division could make decisions that only benefit their own division rather than the company as a whole. Firstly, we look at the transfer price that Thompson quoted. It is about $50 more than the market price. This shows that their price is not competitive enough. Thompson is operating below capacity and yet it quoted a price which is higher than the market price. The reason given was that anything less than $480, they will not be able to earn a profit and also, given that they did not get any profit from developing the product for Northern, Brunner feels that they are entitled to a good markup. This is inconsistent with the expectation that the division must meet the market price if they wanted the business. Market price should be used as it reflects how well is the division doing as compared to competitors. The amount of upstream fixed costs and profits that are included in the final price that was sold to the outside customer could be substantial if Thompson’s bid was accepted. And Northern might not be willing to reduce its own profit to optimize company profit. Hence, Thompson, if unwilling to follow the market price blindly, could use the two-step pricing to calculate their transfer price. That is, transferring the goods to Northern on standard variable cost on a per unit basis and fixed cost and profit on a lump sum basis. In this way, Thompson will not be transferring majority of their fixed cost to Northern because they are operating on excess capacity. But of course, this method must be discussed with Northern. It was mentioned that Southern quoted the market price to Thompson even though they are operating on excess capacity. This will not pose a problem as the market price reflects the demand and supply situation of the market and is adjusted automatically by the demand and supply. Also, account must be taken into of the fact that Thompson will not be able to get a better price from other outside sources as most will follow the market price too. The underlying problem of the transfer price system could be that each division is judged based on profits and return on investment. This causes the division to over-emphasize on profits and encourages goal incongruence. Each division aims at achieving short-term profits so as to look better in the company’s eyes. In their bid to achieve a high profit figure, they fail to optimize the company’s profit as a whole. This will affect the company long-term profits. Hence, the company should not just assess each division based solely on financial figures like profit and return on investment. The company should assess them based on other non-financial things like quality so as to divert the division’s emphasis on profits. In addition, the company should allow the divisions concerned to negotiate between themselves as they are the ones closest to the situation, rather than just asking the divisions to meet the market price.

Challenges Facing Developing Countries

Information document B Interoperability problems in the developing countries 1. Introduction1 2. Developing countries2 3. CIS and Europe4 4. Asia-Pacific5 5. Americas8 6. Africa10 Introduction The ITU has made significant commitments to developing countries in a series of instruments: †¢ Article 17 of the ITU Constitution that the functions of ITU-T are to be performed â€Å"bearing in mind the particular concerns of the developing countries†; †¢ Resolution 123 (Rev. Antalya, 2006) on bridging the standardization gap; and Resolution 139 (Antalya, 2006) which invites Member States to implement rapidly Resolution 37 (Rev. Doha, 2006) of the World Telecommunication Development Conference on bridging the digital divide. Between the developing and developed countries there is a general digital divide of which one part is the standardization gap. This is recognised in Resolution 44 (Johannesburg, 2008) as having three dimensions: †¢ The disparity of voluntary standard ization; †¢ The disparity of mandatory technical regulations; and †¢ The disparity of conformity assessment.Resolution 76 (Johannesburg, 2008) on conformance and interoperability testing considered: †¢ that some countries, especially the developing countries, have not yet acquired the capacity to test equipment and provide assurance to consumers in their countries; and †¢ that increased confidence in the conformance of information and communication technologies (ICT) equipment with ITU-T Recommendations would increase the chances of end-to-end interoperability of equipment from different manufacturers, and would assist developing countries in the choice of solutions. Noted: the need to assist developing countries in facilitating solutions which will exhibit interoperability and reduce the cost of systems and equipment procurement by operators, particularly in the developing countries, whilst improving product quality; Resolved: †¢ assist developing countries in identifying human and institutional capacity-building and training opportunities in conformity and interoperability testing; †¢ assist developing countries in establishing regional or subregional conformity and interoperability centres suitable to perform conformity and interoperability testing as appropriate;Instructed the Director of TSB: †¢ to conduct exploratory activities in each region in order to identify and prioritize the problems faced by developing countries related to achieving interoperability of ICT equipment and services; The following sections review the issues of developing countries then the interoperability problems identified by developing countries in the different regions: CIS & Europe, Asia-Pacific, the Americas, Africa and the Arab states. Developing countries The ITU holds developing countries to include three specific categories: Least Developed Countries (LDCs); †¢ Small Island Developing States (SIDS); and †¢ Countries with Economi es in Transition (EIT). It does not define these terms, but uses the definitions provided by the General Assembly of the United Nations and by its Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). [1] Least Developed Countries (LDCs) can be identified by the following three criteria: †¢ Low-income, a three-year average of Gross National Income (GNI) per capita (under US$ 745 for inclusion, above US$ 900 for graduation); A composite Human Assets Index (HAI) based on: percentage of population undernourished, mortality rate for children aged five years or under, the secondary school enrolment ratio and adult literacy rate; and †¢ A composite Economic Vulnerability Index (EVI) based on: population size, remoteness, merchandise export concentration, share of agriculture, forestry and fisheries in GDP, homelessness owing to natural disasters, instability of agricultural production, and instability of exports of goods and services.While there is considerable overlap between LDCs and SIDS, th e latter face significant additional problems to achieve sustainable development, because of their small populations, limited resources, remoteness, susceptibility to natural disasters and excessive dependence on international trade. The growth and development of SIDS have been disadvantaged by high transportation and communication costs (e. g. , use of satellites in the absence of undersea cables), disproportionately expensive public administration and infrastructure (due to their small size) and the absence of opportunities to create economies of scale. 2] Countries with Economies In Transition (EIT) are those moving from a centrally planned economy to a free market. This requires economic liberalization, the removal of price controls, the lowering of trade barriers, the restructuring and privatization of financial and industrial sectors. It is usually characterised by the creation of new institutions, including private enterprises taking on activities previously performed by the state and new instruments for state governance, such as a national regulatory authority for telecommunications.In the 1990s, these comprised the countries formerly members of the CMEA, some of which are now members of the WTO and the EU. The problems faced in EITs have included the absence of a constructive policy framework, the slowness of the establishment of the network infrastructure, the training of people to use it and to exploit commercially the information and knowledge that it makes available. The issue of interoperability has become more important as countries deploy e-government systems. In order to provide high-quality services to citizens it is important that services can be accessed from the widest possible range of equipment.UNDP has published an e-primer on e-government, setting out the vision and value of interoperability and the steps required to achieve this. It explains the value of e-government interoperability frameworks, the parties that need to be involved an d are the critical success factors. InfoDev has an eGovernment Handbook for developing countries. Despite the enormous progress made in bridging the digital divide and, in particular, the standardization gap, there remain significant problems in terms of conformance and interoperability due to: Lack of human capacity and of training opportunities; and †¢ Weak institutional systems for: o Standardization, o Testing, o Certification, and o Market surveillance. However, the challenges are far from uniform, requiring careful assessment of regional and national circumstances and experiences. CIS and Europe The European Union has legal provisions that directly address interoperability and empower regulatory authorities to ensure the interoperability of systems (see information document C).For example, the EC adopted DVB-H as a common standard for mobile television to achieve interoperability throughout Europe. In 2005, the ITU published a study entitled Towards Interoperable eHealth for Europe with the Telemedicine Alliance. A previous study had identified interoperability as a major obstacle to the implementation of eHealth, which the second report addressed in the form of a strategic plan for trans-national eHealth interoperability. Its aim is to assist stakeholders at all levels in taking action to achieve real and sustainable interoperability. 3] As part of its eHealth Action Plan, the European Commission has adopted a Recommendation on cross-border interoperability of electronic health record systems (2008/594/EC). This will ensure that electronic health record systems interoperate, allowing health professionals from another country to access vital patient information from a home doctor and hospital, improving the quality and safety of medical care. The International Virtual Laboratory for Enterprise Interoperability (INTEROP-VLab) emerged from research projects funded by the European Commission.Its mission is to consolidate, develop and maintain the Europ ean research community in the domain of Enterprise Interoperability. In the United Kingdom, a survey of IEEE 802. 11b/g Wi-Fi usage for the Office of Communications (OFCOM) found a wide variety of problems, many due to causes other than spectrum (e. g. , wired Internet and device configuration errors). Spectrum issues tended to be interference between devices in the 2. 4 GHz ISM band, rather than congestion.However, in the centre of London demands on the band were higher than elsewhere and users experienced both interference and congestion. Interference between different types of radio device lead to a proposal for a certification scheme with a broad ‘2. 4 GHz friendly’ logo rather than the conventional ‘Wi-Fi-friendly’ mark, to help drive acceptance of innovative technologies in that band. Asia-Pacific One of the poorer of the Asian countries was the beneficiary of a sequence of initiatives by national and international aid programmes to assist the evelopm ent of its telecommunications infrastructure. [4] A side effect of this was that the equipment provided or purchased in the different projects were from different manufacturers, often selected by or linked to the donor agency. However, the variety of equipment could not easily be made to interoperate. The effects on the country were to increase the costs of training for its limited pool of technicians and experts (often with international travel), while it reduced the flexibility of use of the equipment.The already limited economies of scale in this country were made worse by fragmentation across different networks and systems, raising the costs for operators and thus for citizens. Within the Asia-Pacific Telecommunity Standardization Programme (ASTAP), the Industry Relations Group (IRG) addresses the needs and concerns of operators and manufacturers. At the 11th Meeting of ASTAP in June 2006 there was a Workshop on Conformity Assessment in the APECTEL Mutual Recognition Arrangement s (MRA).It was recognized that input from industry input into ASTAP and APECTEL could help to improve their operation. The IRG subsequently developed a questionnaire on type-approval and conformity assessment. Between June 2006 and February 2007, responses were obtained from 21 companies and 4 regulators, in Afghanistan, Australia, Iran, Japan, Macau SAR, Papua New Guinea, Singapore and Thailand. This identified issues in terms of: †¢ Costs: o Mandatory in-country testing, rather than accepting certified test results from other countries, Preparation of documentation for submission to the regulator, o Testing to meet specific national standards not aligned with international standards; †¢ Delays: o Time taken to approve a product after documents are submitted, o Testing to national standards not aligned with international standards. The survey identified actions to improve type approval process, including the recognition of certified test reports from other countries by Au stralia and Singapore, and limiting standards in technical regulations to international standards, avoiding national variations.An Asia-Pacific regional compliance mark was proposed, one that would be accepted by all national authorities, without further testing or documentation. The IRG called for national authorities to accept accredited test reports from other countries in order to reduce costs and time delays in type approval. The expansion of telecommunication networks, both in geographic coverage and the range of services, in response to market demand is a continuous process for operators, especially in very rapidly growing Asian markets. Operators have two options: a) Procurement of equipment from the original vendor; or ) Procurement of the best value equipment available at the time, not necessarily from the original vendor. However, the second option is not always possible as equipment from different vendors may not be fully interoperable. The procurement of additional equi pment is, therefore, constrained to be from the original vendor. The practical difficulties faced by this lack of interoperability in two types of networks are explained below. There are many proprietary implementations of Mobile Switching Centres (MSCs), Base Station Controllers (BSCs) and Base Station Transceivers (BTSs).Although the interface between the MSC and the BSC is now considered stable, the Abis interface between BSCs and BTSs is not yet interoperable (see Figure 1). Where additional BTSs are required, in order to meet growing demand, the network operator is constrained to purchase these from the vendor whose BSCs are already deployed. Figure 1Issues related to mobile networks [pic] An operator in India has experienced interoperability issues in the expansion of its GSM network. Its planners assumed that BSCs and BTSs required to be supplied by the same vendor, due to the proprietary interface between the two.However, the interface between the BSC and the MSC, which is a n open standard, required considerable time and effort before interworking could be achieved between equipment from different vendors. Two of the essential components for Intelligent Network (IN) services are the Service Control Point (SCP) and the Service Switching Point (SSP), the latter is normally part of the switch or local exchange (see Figure 2). Consequently, whenever the operator needs to deploy a new switch it has to be purchased from a single supplier, to ensure interoperability with existing infrastructure.Figure 2Issues related to fixed Intelligent Network (IN) [pic] An Indian operator found that SCPs failed to interwork with SSPs from different manufacturers. This issue is considered critical in view of the regulatory requirement to interconnect INs of different service providers. In April 2009, at the CTO/ITU-T Forum on NGN Standardization in Sri Lanka, the issue of non-interoperability was raised. Rajeshwar Dayal from the Indian Department of Telecommunications (DoT) , identified the need for interoperability between and within NGNs (see slides).The following month at the ITU Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Asia and Pacific Region, India proposed that ITU prepare a reference document containing interoperability requirements at the equipment level to help smooth the implementation of NGNs. An NGN Pilot Project by the Iran Telecom Research Center (IRTC) identified a number of problems associated with NGNs supplied by: Alcatel, Huawei, Siemens and ZTE (presented at ITU Kaleidoscope). [5] This acknowledged that NGN was not yet a mature technology and therefore subject to interim problems, that should eventually be eliminated.Tests were conducted initially between equipment of a single vendor, then between different vendors. Problems were identified with the implementations of the ITU-T G. 729 codec and ITU-T H. 248, plus difficulties with the call servers from one manufacturer not being able to control the access, media or signaling gateways of other vendors. The problems had been caused by some vendors not implementing standards completely or having done so imprecisely, while some standards were found to contain ambiguities. AmericasIn the USA, Section 256 of the Communications Act of 1996 requires the FCC to establish procedures to oversee coordinated network planning by providers of telecommunications services. The Act also authorizes the FCC to participate in standards organizations working on network interconnectivity. It is advised by the Network Reliability and Interoperability Council (NRIC), which makes recommendations to ensure, under â€Å"all reasonably foreseeable circumstances†, interoperability of networks, including reliability, robustness, security and interoperability of communications networks.One of the major issues addressed by NRIC in recent years has been to ensure the interoperability of enhanced services for emergency calls (i. e. , to 911). Interoperability for e-government has been addres sed by the Chief Information Officers Council (CIO). Concerns over problems of the non-interoperability of emergency services communication systems became a matter of public concern, following possibly avoidable deaths of firemen in the collapse of the New York World Trade Center on 9th September 2001 and again after Hurricane Katrina. 6] The US Congress called for work to resolve interoperability problems in emergency response communications. [7] To achieve the political objectives, Project 25 (P25) was established as a development process for the design, manufacture and evaluation of interoperable digital two-way wireless communications products for public safety services. The suite of P25 standards is administered by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and consists of the following interfaces: †¢ Common Air Interface (CAI); †¢ Inter-RF Subsystem Interface (ISSI); †¢ Fixed/Base Station Subsystem Interface (FSSI); †¢ Console Subsystem Interface (CS SI); Network Management Interface; †¢ Data Network Interface; †¢ Subscriber Data Peripheral Interface; and †¢ Telephone Interconnect Interface. The P25 Compliance Assessment Program (CAP) is a partnership between the Department of Homeland Security’s Command, Control and Interoperability Division (CID), the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), suppliers and the emergency services. It seeks to: †¢ Ensure that emergency response technologies meet the needs of practitioners; †¢ Assist officials in making informed purchasing decisions; †¢ Provide vendors with a method of testing equipment for P25 compliance; and Support the migration to standards-based communications systems. As of May 2008, eight private laboratories had been accredited, using ISO 17025, for P25 conformance testing. These can test equipment against standards that ensure radios and other equipment interoperate – regardless of manufacturer – enabling em ergency responders to exchange critical communications. Additionally, there two non-governmental bodies as: †¢ Emergency Interoperability Consortium (EIC); and †¢ OASIS Emergency Interoperability. These work on the development of appropriate standards. Anatel has identified problems with fixed network equipment in: Incompatibilities with: o xDSL: between chipsets in Central Office (CO) and Customer Premises Equipment (CPE), and o GPON: between Optical Line Terminals (OLT) and Optical Network Units (ONU); †¢ Interoperability problems between: o softswitches using SIP and SIP-I standards, o PABX-IP equipment and NGN, and o Call Agent (CA) and Media Gateway (MG), when using the T. 38 fax with MEGACO protocol. Similarly with mobile networks, it has found problems with Inter-RAT (Radio Access Technology): †¢ Voice and data failures going from 2G on 1,800 MHz to 3G on 850 MHz and vice versa; On registration, instead of performing a type 02 a type 00 location update was performed; †¢ With 2G, on moving from 900 MHz to 1800 MHz and vice versa there were voice call interruptions; †¢ Despite automatic network search for 3G on 850MHz band, first tried a type 00 location update with 2G on 1800 MHz; †¢ A loss of network signal with 2 or 3G on any frequency band, terminals failed to repeat network registration when in an area with network signal; and †¢ Where there was no roaming enabled, but a secondary IMSI was available the SIM card terminal did not automatically restart the application for the second IMSI.Africa Much of the ICT equipment in developing countries is old, but has yet to be withdrawn from use, because of limited capital to purchase replacements. The interfaces and protocols of such systems are not able to communicate with any modern systems that are more complex and sophisticated. It required the use of gateways which reduces functionality and increases costs. For example, one international operator wishing to provide lower cost international connectivity into a NE African country had to provide a special gateway to what it considered obsolete technology.Unlike in the developed world, most African countries do not have laboratories to test whether or not communications equipment and systems conform to the required international, regional and national standards, making interoperability testing a challenge. Exceptions include Egypt, Morocco, South Africa and Tunisia (see information document I). Rwanda has seen a profusion of very low-cost GSM handsets. Like India, many of these have proved to be counterfeit, with no proof that they comply with international safety standards or that they conform to network standards and interoperate without causing problems.Tanzania has identified a number of issues shown in Table 1. Table 1Interoperability issues in Tanzania |SN |Item |Positive |Concern | |1 |Antennae have different standards |Incentive to roll out in |Joined networks instead of single network th at | | |for different vendor and types |underserved areas |result in duplication of investment and operational | | |e. . space diversity, combining, |Increased employment |expenditure e. g. spare stock, training | | |polar | | | |2 |New technology (upgrade) |Increased competition |Delays or not possible to access some application or| | |compatibility with old versions |Service differentiation |documents e. g Windows 2003 to 2007 or VISTA. | |but not vice versa | |Forced to change from R2 signalling for circuit | | | | |(packet) switching and later likely to IP else miss | | | | |VAS applications | | | | |Environment issue e. g.Exposure or Recycle of | | | | |absolute equipment such as antennae | |3 |Pre-paid and online payment |Easy customer entry and |Revenue stream authenticity | | |(credit card) |consumer choice of services |National Security issues | | | | |e. g. satellite phones | |4 |Liberalization of International |Competitive tariffs |Cyber security. | |gateways. |Improved q uality of services |With multiple gateways how ccTLD and Internet | | |VSAT, Earth stations, submarine | |exchanges are to be on optimal use. | | |cables and optic fibre | |Incoming international traffic revenue loss? | |5 |Transmission systems. PDH and SDH |Incentive to roll out broadband|Different control and operational procedure (Central| | |and mono mode and DWDM optic fibre|data |operation management systems).Complex and costly | | |Core switch (TeS, NGN) not able to|Possible sharing of capacity |integration for various vendors | | |parent various media gateways, RSU|(infrastructure) |Need to share customer information e. g. from EIR or | | |(xDSL) |Increased employment |blacklist and fraudsters. | | |Access interface V5. 1 and V5. 2 | |Difficult or too costly to integrate various vendor | | | | |equipment in the network.While specializing to a | | | | |single vendor also ties to limited QS, services and| | | | |costly upgrades. | |6 |Revenue assurance systems |Increase Custom er satisfaction |Integration of modules for fixed, GSM and CDMA are | | | |Quality of service monitoring |likely to be too costly | | | | |Integration of data and voice |Few countries in Africa have in place the necessary accreditation systems and technical regulations need to provide a framework for the granting of certificates and licenses for the provision of communications services or the supply of telecommunications equipment. There is a general lack of expertise and human capacity in standardization. African countries have been less able than developed countries to participate in and to influence standards making processes.One consequence of this is that they have been much less involved in the work of devising conformity and interoperability tests and then of conducting the tests of equipment and services. Training in standardization and testing has been insufficient and when available been expensive or involved travel. This has resulted in a lack of understanding of test res ults when they are submitted from accredited laboratories. In particular, there is a lack of understanding of international standards concerning the implementation of interoperability of ICT systems and devices.The large and growing number of producers of standards is seen as confusing, especially since the standards and the resulting equipment and interfaces are mostly not interoperable. As with the Indian example, African operators have encountered problems interoperating BSCs and BTSs from different manufacturers. Some types of equipment conforming to international standards are intended to operate in specific radio frequency bands, but this spectrum may not be available in Africa.This has made the efficient use of radio spectrum one of the key challenges African countries confront and which has brought about interoperability problems. The Southern Africa Telecommunications Association (SATA), a group of fixed incumbent operators, has identified specific interoperability challeng es (see Table 1), relating to NGN equipment. Table 2Southern African interoperability challenges (Source: SATA) Equipment supplier and type |Interoperability problems with | | |Equipment Supplier |Equipment Type | |Huawei Technologies SoftSwitch |Nokia Siemens Networks |Trunk Gateway | |Huawei Technologies SoftSwitch |ZTE |CDMA Equipment (Fax problems) | |Huawei Technologies SoftSwitch |Alcatel-Lucent |WiMAX WAC | |There are several interoperability issues between the BOSS and the Element Managers from different suppliers. | |The standard Northbound interfaces between EM and the OSS are not always open, or the supplier is not willing to open | |those interfaces. | In summary, Africa faces the following problems: †¢ Increased supply of poor quality equipment; †¢ Difficulties in the selection of interoperable equipment from a wide range of vendors; †¢ Lack of testing centres, facilities and trained professionals; †¢ Lack of national or regional laws and regulations ; and †¢ Lack of understanding of ITU-T Recommendations, the conformance tests and their results. ———————– 1] Specific tasks have been assigned by the United Nations to the Office of the High Representative for the LDCs, Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) and SIDS (OHRLLS). [2] The telecommunications needs of SIDS are being studied by ITU-D under Question 23/2. [3] See, for example, European Connected Health Leadership Summit ‘A Manifesto for Connected Health’ [4] Permission has not yet been granted by the country to disclose its name. [5] http://ieeexplore. ieee. org/ielx5/4534704/4542234/04542262. pdf? arnumber=4542262 and http://ieeexplore. ieee. org/ielx5/4115171/4115172/04115219. pdf? isnumber=4115172 [6] Jerry Brito (2007) Sending out an S. O. S. public safety communications interoperability as a collective action problem. Federal Communications Law Journal 59 (3) 457-92. [7] Senate Report 109-088. Departments of Commerce and Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Appropriations Bill, 2006. House Report 109-241. Making Appropriations for the Department of Homeland Security for the Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 2006, and for Other Purposes. ———————– BTS of Vendor A BSC of Vendor A MSC of Vendor A BTS of Vendor B Proprietary/Non-interoperable interface SSP of Vendor B Switch /LE Calling Card User Switch /LE SCP SSP SSP SCP of Vendor A SSP of Vendor A Called Subscriber Proprietary/Non-interoperable interface Challenges Facing Developing Countries Challenges Facing Developing Countries Janita Aalto Principles of Microeconomics ECO 204 Instructor Kathryn Armstrong March 28, 2011 Challenges Facing Developing Countries Developing countries, also known as third and fourth world countries; face economic challenges that first world countries do not face, on a large scale. Poverty, low literacy rates, poor investments in both human capital and domestic capital, poor nutrition and devastation to populations due to the HIVAIDS pandemic contribute to developing countries moving towards development. The primary focus of this paper is to explore the impact the HIV/AIDS pandemic has had on Sub-Sahara African economies and to explore the challenges facing developing countries to stimulate domestic savings. The impact on the economies of some of the African countries is still not completely known. If we look at economic impacts, first we must look at the human cost HIV/AIDS is having on Africa’s economic development and ability to cope with the pandemic. According to an online journal, there are four variables that outline the effects on Africa’s future development: â€Å"Economic research helps to estimate the effects of HIV/AIDS on the African economy and the cost effectiveness of prevention and treatment programmes; Economic theory predicts that HIV/AIDS reduces labour supply and productivity, reduces exports, and increase imports; The pandemic has already reduced average national economic growth rates by 2-4% a year across Africa; Prevention and treatment programmes and economic measures such as targeted training in skills needed in key industries will limit the economic effects of HIV/AIDS†, (BMJ. 2002, p. 232). In examining the economic effects of HIV/AIDS, it is hard to look past the fact that over 17 million African people have lost their lives to HIV/AIDS and has 70% of all HIV/AIDS related cases in the world. These are staggering statistics. As outlined in the above journal article, the mortality rates have ca used a reduced labor supply, reduced labor productivity and reduced exports and increased exports. The population of people hardest hit by the HIV/AIDS pandemic are the prime-aged adults. HIV/AIDS robs industries of both skilled workers and a generation of workers in their prime working years. The associated illnesses and sickness as a result of HIV/AIDS can lead to high absenteeism which impacts labor productivity. The effects of a reduced labor supply and reduced labor productivity, â€Å"reduces exports, while imports of expensive healthcare goods may increase. The decline in export earnings will be severe if strategic sectors of the economy are affected. The balance of payments (between export earnings and import expenditure) will come under pressure at the same time that government budgets come under pressure. This could cause defaults on debt repayments and require economic assistance from the international community†, (BMJ. 2002, p. 233). In a 1992 macroeconomics a study on the impact of HIV/AIDS in Africa, it was concluded that â€Å"reduced availability of skilled labour would reduce growth rates by about 50% and investment by 75%, that imports of food and other basic products would increase, and that exports of manufactured and other products would decline†. It was also estimated that by 2010, â€Å"South African’s GDP per capita would be some 8% low and consumption per capita would be about 12% lower than would have been the case without the HIV/AIDS pandemic†, (BMJ. 2002, p. 234). The pandemic will have lasting effects on the economic development on the Sub-Sahara African countries without international assistance. â€Å"An important step in limiting the economic effects of the pandemic is to develop comprehensive policies tailored to the needs of the economies of individual countries. These policies will inevitably include the introduction of treatment and prevention programmes but may also include economic measures, such as targeted training of skills needed in key industries†, (BMJ. 2002, p. 234). One way to help stabilize the economy may be to push expensive antiretroviral drugs at â€Å"highly productive groups of socioeconomic groups in specific industries on the basis of their contribution to economic output rather than their healthcare needs†, (BMJ. 2002, p. 235). This would most likely be a controversial plan, but the strategy would help the people in those groups and buy time for skills training and development of a new work force to replace those that will either lose their health or their lives. It would also boost the economy if industry production levels can be maintained and exports of goods can remain at a profitable pace. The pandemic is having a major effect on life expectancy, which has been dropping. â€Å" In Zimbabwe, for example, life expectancy is 40 instead of 69. In seven countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, life expectancies are below 40 years of age†, (CHG, 2009, p. 3). Not only does this impact the work force, but impacts the children, many of whom lose not only one, but both parents, and other family members that might be able to take them in. Instead these children now become a government responsibility, as they are put into orphanages, group homes, etc. It is estimated that there are 15 million orphaned children across Africa. Standards of living are decreasing, and countries that were once starting to make progress both socioeconomically and economically are headed backwards instead of forward. Poverty is increasing as the family breadwinners are dying or becoming incapacitated by their illnesses. If there are savings, those savings are dwindling as people use their savings just to survive. With mainly young adults dying off, the tax base is shrinking which reduces a countries ability to invest in human capital, such as education and health services, which puts pressure on government finances and reduces economic growth. Investment in education is not a priority with the belief that children will contract HIV/AIDS in adulthood. The poor education of children translates into low adult productivity a generation later. This raises important social and fiscal implications for economic policy. The first is the threat of worsening inequality. If the children left orphaned are not given the care and education en joyed by those whose parents remain uninfected there will be increasing inequality amount the next generation of adults and the families they form†, (CHG, 2009, p. 6). Investing in human capital is one of the keys to bringing economic growth to developing countries. According to an online website, human capital is defined as â€Å"the set of skills which an employee acquires on the job, through training and experiences†, (InvestorWords. com). An investment in human capital also includes; development of and access to, health and nutrition programs. â€Å"Recent studies suggest that 40 percent of the population of the developing nations has an annual income insufficient to provide adequate nutrition†, (Case, Fair & Oster, 2009, p. 427). Low nutrition affects health and poor health affects productivity. Low productivity levels then affect the ability to provide for one’s family, let alone provide any surplus that can be sold and the money put into savings. There are two explanations as to why capital is in such short supply in developing countries. The first is the vicious-cycle-of-poverty hypothesis. According to our text, â€Å"the vicious-cycle-of-poverty hypothesis suggests that a poor nation must consume most of its income just to maintain its already low standard of living. Consuming most of national income implies limited savings, and this implies low levels of investment†, (Case, Fair & Oster, 2009, p. 428). Investment is needed for capital stock to grow and for income levels to rise. Without it, â€Å"poverty becomes self-perpetuating†, (Case, Fair & Oster, 2009, p. 428), and the cycle is complete. The second explanation is that there is a lack of financial incentives for citizens to save and invest, as well as a lack of financial institutions. It is common for the wealthier citizens to invest their monies in Europe or the United States instead of in their own countries. The term for this is capital flight, which â€Å"refers to the fact that both human capital and financial capital leave developing countries in search of higher expected rates of return elsewhere or returns with less risk†, (Case, Fair & Oster, 2009, p. 428). According to an online article, â€Å"Africa is estimated to lose hundreds of billions of dollars in domestic revenues annually through capital flight†, (Africa Renewal, 2008, p. 12). In order to reverse this trend, it is imperative that the government remove the barriers that turn away wealthy citizens from investing in their own countries. Without domestic savings, investment isn’t possible. Without investment, growth isn’t possible and this cycle continues much like the vicious-cycle-of-poverty hypothesis. What decisions do leaders of a developing country make in order to stimulate domestic savings and in turn, capital? If I were the President of a developing country, I would invest in human capital and banking reform. In investing in human capital, I would target health and nutrition programs for kids and young adults, the next generation of workers. With life expectancy rates falling, efforts must be made to reverse that trend. A much larger investment in education would be made; incentives for college kids that go to school abroad to return to their home country and work in their field for a required number of years. I would emphasize training and skill development for replacement workers in the industries hit hardest by HIV/AIDS. In investing in banking reform, I would offer incentives to people who put their money in banks and other financial institutions. Some of the reasons African people in particular do not put money in savings accounts are; â€Å"physical distance from banking institutions, high minimum deposit and balance requirements†¦and the considerable documentation needed to open an account†, (Africa Renewal, 2008, p. 7). There are also a limited number of banks available and with over 60 percent of African people living in rural areas, they just don’t have physical access to banks, unless they travel a long distance. In order to convince people to put their savings in banks, interest paid on savings would need to be high and interest rates on loans low. Somehow, people must be encouraged to place their money into savings so money will be available for future investments. â€Å"The UNCDF noted in its 2004 report that in Rwanda about half a million savings passbook accounts, with an average account size of $57, pulled almost $40 mn into circulation in 2001. â€Å" Although this may not appear significant†, argued the UNCDF, â€Å"proper circulation of these funds into credit products could have a significant multiplier effect in the Rwandan economy†, (Africa Renewal, 2008, p. 7). Poverty, low literacy rates, poor investments in both human capital and domestic capital, poor nutrition and devastation to populations due to the HIVAIDS pandemic contribute to developing countries moving towards development. For these countries to become economically viable, the governments must encourage citizens to invest in their own countries and not rely on international assistance. It’s time for both the citizens and the governments to step up and help themselves. References: Case, K. E. , Fair, R. C. and Oster, S. E. (2009) Principles of Microeconomics (9th ed. ) Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:   Pearson Prentice Hall. Dovi, E. (2008) Boosting domestic savings in Africa: From Africa Renewal, Vol. 22#3 (October 2008), page 12, Retrieved on March, 26, 2011, from http://www. un. org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/vol22no3/223-boosting-domestic-savi ngs. tml Economic Commission for Africa, CHG: Commission on HIV/AIDS and Governance in Africa: Africa: The Socio-Economic Impact of HIV/AIDS, Index No. CHGA-B-11-003, Retrieved on March 27, 2011, from http://www. uneca. org/chga/doc/SOCIO_ECO_IMPACT. pdf InvestorWords, Retrieved on March, 20, 2011, from http://www. investorwords. com Copyright ©2011 by WebFinance, Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. PubMed Central: The impact of HIV and AIDS on Africa’s economic development Simon Dixon, Scott McDonald, and Jennifer Roberts BMJ, 2002 January 26; 324(7331):232-235 PMCID:PMC1122139 ; Retrieved on March 25, 2011, from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC1122139